The processor is the main computer device that performs logical and arithmetic operations, and controls all components of the computer. The processor is a miniature thin rectangular silicon plate, which houses a huge number of transistors that implement all the functions performed by the processor. The flint plate is very fragile, and since any damage to it will lead to the failure of the processor, it is placed in a plastic or ceramic case.
1. Introduction 2. Processor core 2.1. The principle of operation of the processor core 2.2. Ways to improve the performance of the processor core 2.2.1. Pipelining 2.2.2. Superscalar 2.2.3. Parallel data processing 2.2.4. Hyper-threading technology 2.2.5. Turbo boost technology. 2.2.6. Command execution efficiency. 2.3 Ways to reduce the power consumption of the processor core 3. CACHE
1. Introduction.
A modern processor is a complex and high-tech device that includes all the latest achievements in the field of computer technology and related fields of science.
Most modern processors consist of:
one or more cores that execute all instructions;
several levels of cache memory (usually 2 or three levels), accelerating the interaction of the processor with RAM;
RAM controller;
system bus controller (DMI, QPI, HT, etc.);
And it is characterized by the following parameters:
type of microarchitecture;
clock frequency;
a set of executable commands;
the number of cache levels and their volume;
type and speed of the system bus;
the size of the processed words;
the presence or absence of a built-in memory controller;
type of supported RAM;
the amount of addressable memory;
the presence or absence of an integrated graphics core;
power consumption.
A simplified block diagram of a modern multi-core processor is shown in Figure 1.
Let's start the review of the processor device with its main part - the core.
2. Processor core.
The processor core is its main part, containing all functional blocks and performing all logical and arithmetic operations.
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the processor core device. As you can see in the figure, each processor core consists of several functional blocks:
instruction fetch block;
instruction decoding blocks;
data sampling blocks;
control block;
instruction execution blocks;
blocks for saving results;
block of work with interrupts;
a set of registers;
command counter.
Instruction fetch block reads instructions at the address specified in the program counter. Usually, it reads several instructions per cycle. The number of read instructions is determined by the number of decoding blocks, since it is necessary to load the decoding blocks as much as possible at each cycle of operation. In order for the instruction fetch unit to work optimally, the processor core has a branch predictor.
transition predictor tries to determine what sequence of commands will be executed after the jump is made. This is necessary in order to load the processor core pipeline as much as possible after the conditional jump.
Decoding blocks, as the name implies, these are blocks that are engaged in decoding instructions, i.e. determine what the processor needs to do and what additional data is needed to execute the instruction. This task for most modern commercial processors built on the basis of the CISC concept is very difficult. The fact is that the length of instructions and the number of operands are not fixed, and this greatly complicates the life of processor developers and makes the decoding process a non-trivial task.
Often individual complex instructions have to be replaced by microcode - a series of simple instructions that collectively perform the same action as one complex instruction. The set of microcode is flashed in the ROM built into the processor. In addition, the microcode simplifies the development of the processor, since there is no need to create complex kernel blocks to execute individual commands, and fixing the microcode is much easier than fixing a bug in the functioning of the block.
In modern processors, there are usually 2-4 instruction decoding units, for example, in Intel Core 2 processors, each core contains two such units.
Sample Data Blocks fetch data from the cache or RAM required to execute the current instructions. Typically, each processor core contains several data fetch units. For example, Intel Core processors use two data fetch units for each core.
control block Based on the decoded instructions, it controls the operation of instruction execution blocks, distributes the load between them, and ensures timely and correct execution of instructions. This is one of the most important blocks of the processor core.
Instruction Execution Blocks includes several different types of blocks:
ALU - arithmetic logical device;
FPU - device for performing floating point operations;
Blocks for processing the expansion of instruction sets. Additional instructions are used to speed up the processing of data streams, encryption and decryption, video encoding, and so on. To do this, additional registers and sets of logic are introduced into the processor core. At the moment, the most popular instruction set extensions are:
MMX (Multimedia Extensions) is a set of instructions developed by Intel to speed up the encoding and decoding of streaming audio and video data;
SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions) is a set of instructions developed by Intel to perform the same sequence of operations on a set of data while parallelizing the computational process. The instruction sets are constantly being improved, and at the moment there are revisions: SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4;
ATA (Application Targeted Accelerator) is a set of instructions developed by Intel to speed up specialized software and reduce power consumption when working with such programs. These instructions can be used, for example, when calculating checksums or searching for data;
3DNow is an instruction set developed by AMD to extend the capabilities of the MMX instruction set;
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) is a set of instructions developed by Intel to speed up applications that use data encryption using the algorithm of the same name.
Results saving block provides a record of the result of the execution of the instruction in RAM at the address specified in the instruction being processed.
Interrupt block. Working with interrupts is one of the most important tasks of the processor, allowing it to respond to events in a timely manner, interrupt the course of the program and perform the actions required of it. Due to the presence of interrupts, the processor is capable of pseudo-parallel operation, i.e. to the so-called multitasking.
Interrupt handling is as follows. The processor before the start of each cycle of work checks for the presence of an interrupt request. If there is an interrupt to process, the processor saves on the stack the address of the instruction it should have executed and the data received since the last instruction was executed, and proceeds to execute the interrupt service function.
After the interrupt handler has finished executing, the stored data is read from the stack, and the processor resumes execution of the restored task.
Registers- ultra-fast random access memory (access to registers is several times faster than access to cache memory) of a small amount (several hundred bytes), which is part of the processor, for temporary storage of intermediate results of instruction execution. Processor registers are divided into two types: general purpose registers and special registers.
General purpose registers are used when performing arithmetic and logical operations, or specific operations of additional instruction sets (MMX, SSE, etc.).
Special purpose registers contain system data necessary for the operation of the processor. Such registers include, for example, control registers, system address registers, debug registers, etc. Access to these registers is strictly regulated.
Command counter– register containing the address of the instruction that the processor will start executing at the next cycle of work.
The processor is the main chip in the computer. As a rule, it is also one of the most high-tech and expensive PC components. Despite the fact that the processor is a separate device, it has a large number of components in its structure that are responsible for a specific function. What are their specifics?
Processor: device features and appearance history
The PC component, which is now commonly referred to as the central processing unit, is characterized by a fairly interesting history origin. Therefore, in order to understand its specifics, it will be useful to examine some key facts about the evolution of its development. The device, which is known to the modern user as the central processing unit, is the result of many years of improving the technology for the production of computing microcircuits.
Over time, the engineers' vision of the processor structure changed. In computers of the first and second generation, the corresponding components consisted of a large number of separate blocks, very dissimilar in terms of the tasks being solved. Starting with the third generation of computers, the functions of the processor began to be considered in a narrower context. Computer design engineers determined that this should be the recognition and interpretation of machine commands, entering them into registers, as well as controlling other PC hardware components. All these functions began to be combined in one device.
Microprocessors
With the development of computer technology, devices called the "microprocessor" began to be introduced into the structure of the PC. One of the first devices of this type was the Intel 4004, released by an American corporation in 1971. Microprocessors on the scale of one microcircuit combined in their structure those functions that we defined above. Modern devices, in principle, work on the basis of the same concept. Thus, the central processor of a laptop, PC, tablet contains in its structure: a logical device, registers, as well as a control module responsible for specific functions. However, in practice, the components of modern microcircuits are most often presented in a more complex set. Let's study this feature in more detail.
The structure of modern processors
The central processor of a modern PC, laptop or tablet is represented by the core - now it is considered the norm that there are several of them, cache memory at various levels, as well as controllers: RAM, system bus. The performance of a chip of the corresponding type is determined by its key characteristics. In what aggregate can they be presented?
The most significant characteristics CPU on modern PCs, these are: type of microarchitecture (usually indicated in nanometers), clock frequency(in gigahertz), cache size per level (in megabytes), power consumption (in watts), and presence or absence of a graphics module.
Let's study the specifics of some key CPU modules in more detail. Let's start with the kernel.
Processor core
The central processing unit of a modern PC always has a core. It contains the key functional blocks of the microcircuit, through which it performs the necessary logical and arithmetic functions. As a rule, they are presented in a certain set of elements. So, the device of the central processor most often assumes the presence of blocks that are responsible for solving the following tasks:
Fetching and decoding instructions;
Data sampling;
Execution of instructions;
Saving calculation results;
Working with interrupts.
Also, the structure of microcircuits of the corresponding type is supplemented by a control unit, a memory device, a program counter, and a set of registers. Let's consider the specifics of the corresponding components in more detail.
Processor core: components
Among the key blocks in the core of the central processor is the one that is responsible for reading the instructions that are written in the address fixed in the program counter. As a rule, during one cycle, several operations of the corresponding type are performed at once. The total number of instructions to be read is predetermined by the index in decoding blocks. The main principle here is that at each cycle the marked components are loaded to the maximum. In order to meet this criterion, auxiliary hardware elements may be present in the processor structure.
In the decoding block, instructions are processed that determine the algorithm for the operation of the microcircuit in the course of solving certain problems. Ensuring their functioning is a difficult task, according to many IT professionals. This is due, in part, to the fact that the length of an instruction is not always clearly defined. Modern processors usually include 2 or 4 blocks in which the corresponding decoding is carried out.
Regarding the components responsible for fetching data, their main task is to ensure the receipt of commands from the cache memory or RAM, which are necessary to ensure the execution of instructions. In the cores of modern processors, there are usually several blocks of the corresponding type.
The control components present in the chip are also based on decoded instructions. They are designed to control the work of blocks that are responsible for the execution of instructions, as well as distribute tasks between them, control their timely execution. Control components are among the most important in the structure of microprocessors.
In the cores of microcircuits of the corresponding type, there are also blocks responsible for the correct execution of instructions. Their structure contains elements such as an arithmetic and logical unit, as well as a component responsible for floating point calculations.
There are blocks in the processor cores that control the processing of the expansion of sets that are set for instructions. These algorithms, supplementing the basic commands, are used to increase the intensity of data processing, the implementation of file encryption or decryption procedures. The solution of such problems requires the introduction of additional registers into the structure of the microcircuit core, as well as sets of instructions. Modern processors usually include the following extensions: MMX (designed for encoding audio and video files), SSE (used for parallel computing), ATA (used to speed up programs and reduce PC power consumption), 3DNow (expansion of computer multimedia capabilities), AES (data encryption), as well as many other standards.
The structure of the processor cores usually also contains blocks responsible for storing the results in RAM in accordance with the address contained in the instruction.
Important is the kernel component that controls the operation of the chip with interrupts. This function allows the processor to ensure the stability of programs in multitasking conditions.
The work of the central processor is also associated with the use of registers. These components are analogous to RAM, but access to them is several times faster. The volume of the corresponding resource is small - as a rule, it does not exceed a kilobyte. Registers are classified into several varieties. These can be general purpose components that are involved in performing arithmetic or logical calculations. There are special purpose registers that can contain system data used by the processor during operation.
The structure of the processor core also contains various auxiliary components. Which for example? This could be a sensor that keeps track of what the current temperature of the CPU is. If its performance is higher than the established norms, then the microcircuit can send a signal to the modules responsible for the operation of the fans - and they will begin to rotate faster. There is a branch predictor in the kernel structure - a component that is designed to determine which commands will be executed after certain cycles of operations performed by the microcircuit are completed. An example of another important component is the program counter. This module fixes the address of the corresponding algorithm, which is transmitted to the microcircuit at the moment it starts executing one or another cycle.
This is the structure of the kernel, which is included in the computer's central processing unit. Let us now study in more detail some key characteristics of microcircuits of the corresponding type. Namely: process technology, clock frequency, cache memory, and power consumption.
Processor Specifications: Process Type
The development of computer technology is usually associated with the emergence of new generations of computers as computing technologies improve. At the same time, apart from performance indicators, one of the criteria for classifying a computer to a particular generation can be considered its absolute size. The very first computers were comparable in size to a multi-storey building. Computers of the second generation were comparable in size, for example, to a sofa or a piano. Computers of the next level were already very close to those that are familiar to us now. In turn, modern PCs are computers of the fourth generation.
Actually, what is all this for? The fact is that in the course of the evolution of computers, an unofficial rule was formed: the more technologically advanced the device, the smaller the dimensions with the same performance, and even with more - it has. It is also fully valid in relation to the considered characteristic of the central processor, namely, the technical process of its manufacture. In this case, the distance between single silicon crystals that form the structure of the microcircuit matters. The smaller it is, the greater the density of the corresponding elements that the CPU board places on itself. Moreover, it can be considered more productive, respectively. Modern processors are made according to the 90-14 nm process technology. This indicator tends to gradually decrease.
Clock frequency
The clock speed of the CPU is one of the key indicators of its performance. It determines how many operations per second the chip can perform. The more of them, the more productive the processor and the computer as a whole. It can be noted that given parameter characterizes, first of all, the kernel as an independent module of the central processor. That is, if there are several corresponding components on the chip, then each of them will operate at a separate frequency. Some IT professionals find it acceptable to summarize these characteristics across all cores. What does it mean? If, for example, the processor has 4 cores with a frequency of 1 GHz, then the total PC performance indicator, if you follow this methodology, will be 4 GHz.
Frequency components
The considered indicator is formed from two components. Firstly, this is the system bus frequency - it is usually measured in hundreds of megahertz. Secondly, it is the coefficient by which the corresponding indicator is multiplied. In some cases, processor manufacturers give users the ability to adjust both settings. At the same time, if you set sufficiently high values for the system bus and multiplier, you can significantly increase the performance of the microcircuit. This is how the processor is overclocked. True, it must be used carefully.
The fact is that during overclocking, the temperature of the central processor can increase significantly. If an appropriate cooling system is not installed on the PC, this can lead to the failure of the microcircuit.
Cache size
Modern processors are equipped with cache memory modules. Their main purpose is the temporary placement of data, usually represented by a set of special commands and algorithms - those that are most often used in the operation of the microcircuit. What does it give in practice? First of all, the loading of the central processor can be reduced due to the fact that the same commands and algorithms will be available online. The microcircuit, having received ready-made instructions from the cache memory, does not waste time developing them from scratch. As a result, the computer runs faster.
The main characteristic of cache memory is volume. The larger it is, the more capacious this module is, respectively, in terms of the location of the very instructions and algorithms used by the processor. The more likely it is that the microcircuit will each time find among them the ones it needs and work faster. Cache memory on modern processors is most often divided into three levels. The first works on the basis of the fastest and most high-tech microcircuits, the rest are slower. The volume of cache memory of the first level on modern processors is about 128-256 KB, the second - 1-8 MB, the third - can exceed 20 MB.
power usage
Another significant parameter of the microcircuit is power consumption. Powering the CPU can involve significant power consumption. Modern models of microcircuits consume about 40-50 watts. In some cases, this parameter is of economic importance - for example, when it comes to equipping large enterprises with several hundred or thousands of computers. But no less significant factor is power consumption in terms of adapting processors to use on mobile devices- laptops, tablets, smartphones. The lower the corresponding indicator, the longer it will be offline work device.
Now there is a lot of information on the Internet on the topic of processors, you can find a bunch of articles about how it works, where registers, cycles, interrupts, etc. are mainly mentioned ... But, for a person who is not familiar with all these terms and concepts, it is quite difficult like this "with fly" to delve into the understanding of the process, but you need to start small - namely, with an elementary understanding how the processor is arranged and what main parts it consists of.
So, what will be inside the microprocessor if it is disassembled:
the number 1 denotes the metal surface (cover) of the microprocessor, which serves to remove heat and protect against mechanical damage what is behind this cover (that is, inside the processor itself).
At number 2 - is the crystal itself, which in fact is the most important and expensive part of the microprocessor to manufacture. It is thanks to this crystal that all calculations take place (and this is the most main function processor) and the more complex it is, the more perfect it is - the more powerful the processor turns out and the more expensive it is, respectively. The crystal is made from silicon. In fact, the manufacturing process is very complex and contains dozens of steps, more details in this video:
The number 3 is a special textolite substrate to which all other parts of the processor are attached, in addition, it plays the role of a contact pad - on its reverse side there are a large number of golden "dots" - these are contacts (they are slightly visible in the figure). Thanks to the contact pad (substrate), close interaction with the crystal is ensured, because it is not possible to directly influence the crystal in any way.
The lid (1) is attached to the substrate (3) with a high temperature resistant adhesive-sealant. There is no air gap between the crystal (2) and the cover, its place is taken by thermal paste, when it hardens, it forms a "bridge" between the processor die and the cover, which ensures a very good heat outflow.
The crystal is connected to the substrate using soldering and sealant, the contacts of the substrate are connected to the contacts of the crystal. This figure clearly shows how the contacts of the crystal are connected to the contacts of the substrate using very thin wires (in the photo 170x magnification):
In general, the design of processors from different manufacturers and even models from the same manufacturer can vary greatly. but circuit diagram work remains the same - they all have a contact substrate, a crystal (or several located in one package) and a metal cover for heat dissipation.
For example, the contact pad of the Intel Pentium 4 processor looks like this (the processor is upside down):
The shape of the pins and the structure of their arrangement depends on the processor and motherboard computer (sockets must match). For example, in the figure just above, the contacts of the processor do not have "pins", since the pins are located directly in the motherboard socket.
And there is another situation where the "pins" of the contacts stick out directly from the contact substrate. This feature is typical mainly for AMD processors:
As mentioned above, the device different models processors from the same manufacturer may vary, we have a vivid example of this - the quad-core Intel Core 2 Quad processor, which is essentially 2 dual-core processors of the core 2 duo line, combined in one package:
Important! The number of dies inside a processor and the number of processor cores are not the same thing.
In modern models Intel processors fits 2 crystals (chips) at once. The second chip is the graphics core of the processor, which in fact plays the role of a video card built into the processor, that is, even if the system is missing, the graphics core will take on the role of a video card, and quite powerful (in some processor models, the computing power of graphics cores allows you to play modern games on medium graphics settings).
That's all central microprocessor unit in short, of course.
A tool is easier than a machine. Often the tool is worked by hand, and the machine is driven by steam power or an animal.
Charles Babbage
A computer can also be called a machine, but instead of steam power, it has electricity. But programming has made the computer as simple as any tool.
The processor is the heart/brain of any computer. Its main purpose is arithmetic and logical operations, and before diving into the wilds of the processor, you need to understand its main components and how they work.
The two main components of a processor
Control device
The control unit (CU) helps the processor control and execute instructions. The CU tells the components exactly what to do. In accordance with the instructions, it coordinates with other parts of the computer, including the second main component - the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). All instructions first come to the control device.
There are two types of CU implementation:
- CU on hard logic(English hardwired control units). The nature of the work is determined by the internal electrical structure - the device of a printed circuit board or a crystal. Accordingly, the modification of such a control unit without physical intervention is impossible.
- CU with microprogram control(English microprogrammable control units). Can be programmed for certain purposes. The software part is stored in the memory of the CU.
A hard logic CU is faster, but a microprogram controlled CU has more flexible functionality.
Arithmetic logic unit
This device, oddly enough, performs all arithmetic and logical operations, such as addition, subtraction, logical OR, etc. The ALU consists of logic elements that perform these operations.
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output.
Below is a half adder circuit that has two inputs and two outputs. A and B here are inputs, S is an output, C is a carry (to the most significant bit).
Diagram of an arithmetic half-adder
Information storage - registers and memory
As mentioned earlier, the processor executes the commands that come to it. Commands in most cases work with data, which can be intermediate, input or output. All this data, along with instructions, is stored in registers and memory.
Registers
A register is the smallest data memory location. Registers consist of flip-flops (English latches/flip-flops). Triggers, in turn, consist of logical elements and can store 1 bit of information.
Note. transl. Triggers can be synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous can change their state at any time, and synchronous only during a positive / negative edge at the synchronization input.
According to their functional purpose, triggers are divided into several groups:
- RS flip-flop: saves its state at zero levels on both inputs and changes it when it is set to one on one of the inputs (Reset / Set - Reset / Installation).
- JK-flip-flop: identical to the RS-flip-flop, except that when one is applied to two inputs at once, the flip-flop changes its state to the opposite (counting mode).
- T-flip-flop: reverses its state on every clock cycle on its single input.
- D-flip-flop: remembers the input state at the time of synchronization. Asynchronous D-flip-flops have no meaning.
RAM is not suitable for storing intermediate data, as this will slow down the processor. Intermediate data is sent to registers on the bus. They can store commands, output data, and even addresses of memory cells.
The principle of operation of the RS flip-flop
Memory (RAM)
RAM (random access memory, eng. RAM) is a large group of these same registers connected together. The memory of such a storage is unstable and the data from there disappears when the power is turned off. RAM takes the address of the memory location where the data is to be placed, the data itself, and a write/read flag that activates the triggers.
Note. transl. RAM is static and dynamic - SRAM and DRAM, respectively. In static memory, cells are flip-flops, and in dynamic memory, capacitors. SRAM is faster and DRAM is cheaper.
Commands (instructions)
Commands are the actual actions that the computer needs to perform. They are of several types:
- Arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.
- brain teaser: AND (logical multiplication/conjunction), OR (logical summation/disjunction), negation, etc.
- Informational: move , input , outptut , load and store .
- Jump commands: goto , if ... goto , call and return .
- Stop command:halt.
Note. transl. In fact, all arithmetic operations in an ALU can be created from just two: addition and shift. However, the more basic operations an ALU supports, the faster it is.
Instructions are provided to the computer in assembly language or generated by a high-level language compiler.
In a processor, instructions are implemented in hardware. In one cycle, a single-core processor can execute one elementary (basic) instruction.
A group of instructions is usually called an instruction set.
Processor clock
The speed of a computer is determined by the clock speed of its processor. Clock frequency - the number of cycles (respectively, and executable commands) per second.
The frequency of current processors is measured in GHz (Gigahertz). 1 GHz = 10⁹ Hz - one billion operations per second.
To reduce the program execution time, you need to either optimize (reduce) it, or increase the clock frequency. Some processors have the ability to increase the frequency (overclock the processor), however, such actions physically affect the processor and often cause overheating and failure.
Execution of instructions
Instructions are stored in RAM in sequential order. For a hypothetical processor, an instruction consists of an opcode and a memory/register address. There are two instruction registers inside the control device, into which the instruction code and the address of the currently executing instruction are loaded. The processor also has additional registers that store the last 4 bits of executed instructions.
Below is an example of a set of commands that sums two numbers:
- LOAD_A 8 . This command stores data in RAM, say,<1100 1000>. The first 4 bits are the opcode. It is he who defines the instruction. This data is placed in the CU instruction registers. The command is decoded into the instruction load_A - put data 1000 (the last 4 bits of the command) into register A .
- LOAD_B 2 . The situation is similar to the previous one. This places the number 2 (0010) into register B .
- ADD B A . The command adds two numbers (more precisely, adds the value of register B to register A). The CU tells the ALU to perform the sum operation and place the result back into register A.
- STORE_A 23 . We save the value of register A to memory location 23 .
These are the operations needed to add two numbers.
Tire
All data between the processor, registers, memory, and I/O devices (input/output devices) is transferred over buses. To load the data just processed into memory, the processor puts the address on the address bus and the data on the data bus. Then you need to give permission to write on the control bus.
Cache
The processor has a mechanism for storing instructions in the cache. As we found out earlier, a processor can execute billions of instructions per second. Therefore, if each instruction were stored in RAM, then its withdrawal from there would take more time than its processing. Therefore, to speed up the work, the processor stores part of the instructions and data in the cache.
If the data in the cache and memory do not match, then they are marked with dirty bits.
Instruction Stream
Modern processors can process multiple instructions in parallel. While one instruction is in the decoding stage, the processor can have time to receive another instruction.
However, this solution is only suitable for those instructions that do not depend on each other.
If the processor is multi-core, this means that it actually has several separate processors with some shared resources, such as cache.
CPU Structure
To make it clear to a non-professional how the central processing unit of a computer works, consider what blocks it consists of:
Processor control unit;
Command and data registers;
Arithmetic logic units (perform arithmetic and logical operations);
Block of operations with real numbers, that is, with floating point numbers or, more simply, with fractions (FPU);
Buffer memory (cache) of the first level (separately for commands and data);
Buffer memory (cache) of the second level for storing intermediate results of calculations;
Most modern processors also have a third-level cache;
System bus interface.
The principle of the processor
The algorithm of the computer's central processor can be represented as a sequence of the following actions.
The processor control unit takes from the RAM into which the program is loaded certain values (data) and commands to be executed (instructions). This data is loaded into the processor's cache memory.
From the processor's buffer memory (cache), instructions and received data are written to registers. Instructions are placed in instruction registers, and values are placed in data registers.
The arithmetic logic unit reads instructions and data from the corresponding processor registers and executes these instructions on the received numbers.
The results are again written to the registers and, if the calculations are completed, to the processor's buffer memory. The processor has very few registers, so it is forced to store intermediate results in cache memory of various levels.
New data and commands necessary for calculations are loaded into the upper-level cache (from the third to the second, from the second to the first), and unused data, on the contrary, into the lower-level cache.
If the calculation cycle is over, the result is written to RAM computer to free up space in the processor's buffer memory for new calculations. The same thing happens when the cache is full of data: unused data is moved to the lower-level cache or RAM.
The sequence of these operations forms the operational thread of the processor. During operation, the processor gets very hot. To prevent this from happening, you need to clean your laptop at home in a timely manner.
In order to speed up the work of the central processor and increase the performance of calculations, new architectural solutions are constantly being developed that increase the efficiency of the processor. Among them are the pipeline execution of operations, tracing, that is, an attempt to anticipate further program actions, parallel processing of commands (instructions), multithreading and multi-core.
Multi-core processor has several computing cores, that is, several arithmetic-logical units, floating-point units and registers, as well as a first-level cache, each united in its own core. The cores have a common buffer memory of the second and third levels. The appearance of the third-level cache was precisely caused by multi-core and, accordingly, the need for a larger amount of fast buffer memory to store intermediate results of calculations.
The main indicators that affect the speed of data processing by the processor are the number of processing cores, the length of the pipeline, the clock frequency and the amount of cache memory. To increase the performance of a computer, it is often necessary to change the processor, and this entails the replacement of the motherboard and RAM. Our experts will help you upgrade, configure and repair your computer at home in Moscow. service center if the process scares you self assembly and computer upgrades.
