>> Types of objects and their classification
Of two sets related by the relation “is a variety,” one is a subset of the other. For example, the set of parrots is a subset of the set of birds, the set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of integers.
Relationship diagram“is a variety” we will call the variety diagram (Fig. 1.9). Such diagrams are used in textbooks, catalogs and encyclopedias to describe a wide variety of objects, such as plants, animals, complex sentences, vehicles, etc.
In a variety diagram, the name of a subset is always located below the name of the set that contains it.
Objects of a subset necessarily have all the characteristics of the objects of the set (inherit the characteristics of the set) and, in addition to them, have their own additional characteristic (or several characteristics). This additional feature can be a property or an action. For example, any domestic animal needs to be fed, dogs, in addition, bark and bite, and sled dogs, in addition, also run in a harness.
It is important to understand that objects themselves are not divided into any sets or subsets. For example, a watermelon is completely “indifferent” to whether it is classified as a member of the pumpkin plant family, a subset of striped or spherical objects. Subsets of objects are identified and designated by a person, because it is more convenient for him to assimilate and transmit information. The fact is that a person can simultaneously concentrate his attention on only 5-9 objects. To simplify working with many objects, it is divided into several parts; each of these parts is again divided into parts; those, in turn, again, etc. The division of a large set into subsets does not occur spontaneously, but according to some characteristics of its objects.
Subset an object s that have common characteristics is called a class. Dividing a set of objects into classes is called classification. The characteristics by which one class differs from another are called the basis of classification.
Classification is called natural if the essential characteristics of objects are taken as its basis. An example of natural classification is the classification of living things proposed by Carl Linnaeus (1735). Currently, scientists divide the variety of all living things into five main kingdoms: plants, fungi, animals, protozoa and prokaryotes. Each kingdom is divided into unit levels. The highest level is called a type. Each phylum is divided into classes, classes into orders, orders into families, families into genera, and genera into species.
A classification is called artificial if it is based on unimportant signs of objects. Artificial classifications include auxiliary classifications (alphabetical subject indexes, name catalogs in libraries). An example of an artificial classification is the division of many stars in the sky into constellations, carried out according to characteristics that had nothing to do with the stars themselves.
We can propose the following classification of objects with which the user interacts in operating system Windows (Fig. 1.10).
Briefly about the main thing
A kind schema is a schema of "is a kind" relationships between sets and subsets of objects.
Objects of a subset have additional characteristics, in addition to those that the objects of the set that includes this subset have.
A subset of objects that have common characteristics is called a class. Dividing a set of objects into classes is called classification. The characteristics by which one class differs from another are called the basis of classification.
Questions and tasks
1. For each of the indicated subsets, name the set with which it is related by the relation “is a variety” (name the general name that answers the question “What is it?”):
a) pronoun;
b) comma;
c) joystick;
d) parallelogram;
e) town hall;
f) fable;
g) capillary.
2. Find in the list six pairs of sets between which the “is a variety” relationship exists. Determine the name of the subset in each such pair. Name at least one additional property for it:
Book;
petrol;
doctor;
milk;
builder;
textbook;
liquid;
directory;
Human.
3. Select from the list the names of nine sets related by the “is a variety” relationship. Make a diagram of the varieties:
Apple tree; conifer tree;
pine; fir;
tree; deciduous tree;
apple; trunk;
fruit tree; birch;
oak; larch;
root; acorn.
4. Using the proposed classification of parallelograms, describe the properties of a square, which inherits them from two ancestors at once - a rectangle and a rhombus. What additional properties does a square have: a) in relation to a rectangle; b) in relation to a rhombus?
5. Each paragraph lists objects grouped by class. For example: table, computer, onion cow, pen, pan/ village, banner, feather - these are nouns classified by gender. Determine the basis of classifications:
a) spruce, pine, cedar, fir/birch, aspen, linden, poplar;
b) potatoes, onions, cucumbers, tomatoes/apples, oranges, pears, tangerines;
c) rye, silence, lie, lynx/wheat, silence, truth, cat;
d) shirt, jacket, dress, sundress/coat, fur coat, raincoat, windbreaker;
e) wolf, bear, fox, elk/cow, dog, cat, horse.
6. Offer your classification of computer objects “file” and “document”.
Bosova L. L., Computer Science and ICT: textbook for grade 7 by L. L. Bosova. M.: BINOM. Knowledge Laboratory, 2010. 229 p. : ill.
Lesson content lesson notes supporting frame lesson presentation acceleration methods interactive technologies Practice tasks and exercises self-test workshops, trainings, cases, quests homework discussion questions rhetorical questions from students Illustrations audio, video clips and multimedia photographs, pictures, graphics, tables, diagrams, humor, anecdotes, jokes, comics, parables, sayings, crosswords, quotes Add-ons abstracts articles tricks for the curious cribs textbooks basic and additional dictionary of terms other Improving textbooks and lessonscorrecting errors in the textbook updating a fragment in a textbook, elements of innovation in the lesson, replacing outdated knowledge with new ones Only for teachers perfect lessons calendar plan for the year; methodological recommendations; discussion programs Integrated Lessons Types of objects and their classification Questions and assignments, Informatics 6th grade Bosova Questions and assignments, Informatics 6th grade Bosova answers to questions, Informatics 6th grade Bosova GDZ, Informatics 6th grade Bosova answersExercise 1
For each of the indicated subsets, name the set with which it is related by the relation “is a variety” (name the general name that answers the question “What is it?”):
a) pronoun;
b) comma;
c) joystick;
d) rectangle;
d) textbook.
Solution
a) a pronoun is a type of part of speech;
b) a comma is a type of punctuation mark;
c) a joystick is a type of peripheral device;
d) a rectangle is a type of geometric shape;
e) a textbook is a type of book.
Task 2
Among the sets “book”, “gasoline”, “doctor”, “milk”, “builder”, “textbook”, “liquid”, “reference book”, “person”, find six pairs between which the relation “is a variety” exists. .
Determine the name of the subset in each such pair. Name at least one additional feature for it.
Solution
1) a reference book is a type of book;
2) gasoline is a type of liquid;
3) the doctor is a type of person;
4) milk is a type of liquid;
5) the builder is a type of human;
6) a textbook is a type of book.
Task 3
Each item lists objects grouped by class. For example: table, computer, bow / cow, pen, pan / village, banner, feather - these are nouns classified by gender. Determine the basis of classifications:
a) spruce, pine, cedar, fir/birch, aspen, linden, poplar;
b) rye, silence, lie, lynx / wheat, silence, truth, cat;
c) shirt, jacket, dress, sundress/coat, fur coat, raincoat, windbreaker;
d) wolf, bear, fox, elk/cow, dog, cat, horse.
Solution
a) coniferous trees / deciduous trees;
b) ends in “b” / ends in “a”;
c) formal wear/outerwear;
d) wild animals/domestic animals.
Task 4
Why do you think classification is needed?
Solution
Classification is needed in order to easily navigate a large amount of information.
Task 5
What is the difference between natural and artificial classifications?
Solution
Classification is called natural if the essential characteristics of objects are taken as its basis.
Classification is called artificial if insignificant characteristics of objects are taken as its basis.
Task 6
Give examples of classifications that you met in the lessons of the Russian language, mathematics, biology and geography.
Solution
Classifications in mathematics: natural numbers, integers, fractions.
Classifications in Russian: simple, complex sentences: complex, compound.
Classifications in biology - classification of animal species.
Classifications in geography - classification of soils.
Task 7
Propose your classification of computer objects "
Table 9.1. Types of computer documents
| Document type | Form representation information | Document Objects | Wednesday |
| TEXT | Symbolic | SymbolWordSentenceParagraphPageFragment of textText | Word processor or editor |
| GRAPHIC ARTS | Graphic (bitmap) | Pixel Graphic primitive Fragment of a picture Drawing | Graphics editor |
| TABLE(Spreadsheet) | Tabular | Cell (table cell) Block of cells Table Chart | Table processor |
| DATABASE | List or card index | Field elementFieldRecord instanceRecordCollection of recordsDatabase | Database management system (DBMS) |
| COMPONENT DOCUMENT | Symbolic Graphic Tabular List or card index, etc. | Embedded objects of different environments: text, graphics, tables, formulas, figured text, hypertext, sound, video, etc. | Word processorPresentation editorWeb page editor, etc. |
- Why do you need to classify objects? What is the basis of any classification? Give an example of classifying objects according to general properties. Give an example of classifying objects according to general actions. Can the environment of existence become the basis for classification? Classify objects with the general name “bicycle”. Classify household dishes according to the following criteria: material, purpose, durability. Offer several options for arranging (classifying) various objects on your desk. Name the basis on which the following objects could fall into one group:
- kangaroo, platypus, rabbit, armadillo; rose, wheel, football boots, cactus; milk, gasoline, acid, magma.
Topic 10 Classification of models
After studying this topic, you will learn:- what can serve as a basis for classifying models; how models are classified by area of use; how models are classified according to the method of presentation; what are the forms of presentation of information models; What is a computer model?
- area of use; taking into account the time factor (dynamics) in the model; branch of knowledge; way of representing models.
Rice. 10.1. Classification of models by area of use
Scientific and technical models are created to study processes and phenomena. Such models include, for example, a device for producing a lightning electrical discharge or a stand for testing televisions. Game models include military, economic, sports, and business games. These models seem to rehearse the behavior of the object in various situations, playing them out taking into account the possible reaction from a competitor, ally or enemy. With the help of game models, you can provide psychological assistance to patients and resolve conflict situations. Simulation models do not simply reflect reality with varying degrees of accuracy, but imitate it. Experiments with the model are carried out with different initial data. Based on the results of the study, conclusions are drawn. This method of selecting the right solution is called the trial and error method. For example, to identify the side effects of drugs, they are tested in a series of experiments on animals. Another example of simulation modeling can be experimental activities in schools. Suppose they want to introduce a new subject, “Driving Fundamentals,” into teaching. A number of schools are selected for the experiment. Somewhere they teach how to drive a school truck, somewhere they teach how to drive a passenger car assembled by students, and in some schools it all comes down to learning the rules of the road (simulation with various input data). Subsequent testing and analysis of the results of introducing a new subject in many schools help to draw a conclusion about the feasibility of teaching this discipline in all schools in the country. As already mentioned, one of the classifications is related to the time factor. Models can be divided into static and dynamic according to how the dynamics of ongoing processes are reflected in them (Figure 10.2).
Rice. 10.2. Model classification -
A static model is a one-time slice of information on a given object. For example, an examination of students in a dental clinic gives the state of their teeth at a given point in time: the ratio of milk and permanent teeth, the presence of fillings, defects, etc. The dynamic model represents a picture of how an object changes over time. In the example with a clinic, a student’s medical record, reflecting changes in the condition of his teeth over many years, can be considered a dynamic model. When building a house, the strength of its foundation, walls, beams and their resistance to constant load are calculated. This is a static model of the building. But it is also necessary to ensure resistance to winds, groundwater movement, seismic vibrations and other time-varying factors. These issues can be addressed using dynamic models. As can be seen from the examples, the same object can be characterized by both a static and a dynamic model. Models can be classified according to “what branch” of knowledge or human activity they belong to (biological, sociological, economic, historical, etc.), and according to many other factors. 10.2. Classification of models according to the method of presentation Let us consider in more detail the classification of the entire variety of models according to the method of presentation. The scheme of such a classification is shown in Figure 10.3.
Rice. 10.3. Classification of models by presentation method
IN 
According to it, models are divided into two large groups: material and abstract (intangible). These two groups seem to characterize “what models are made of.” Both material and abstract models contain information about the original object. Only in the case of a material model does this information have a real embodiment - color, shape, proportions, etc. It can be obtained using the senses: vision, touch, smell, as well as using measuring instruments and tools. In the immaterial model, the same information is presented in abstract form (thought, formula, drawing, diagram). Material and abstract models can reflect the same prototype and complement each other. Some of you have seen a spectacular act in the circus with a motorcyclist moving at high speed along a steep wall. In the “Surprise” attraction in the park of culture and recreation, booths with people rotate at high speed in a vertical plane. The reason why the motorcyclist is held and people do not fall out of the cabins is explained by the centrifugal forces acting on each object during rotation. They can be depicted in drawings and described by formulas. These are various abstract forms of representing information. Not everyone understands them. However, this process can also be demonstrated using the example of 
the greatest experience. Take a bucket of water and spin it around. The water does not pour out due to the action of the same forces. This experience clearly convinces that, indeed, some forces arise during rotation. At the attraction you have the opportunity to feel them for yourself. Thus, a material model helps to understand the essence of a complex physical process. Let's give another example. The model of a pendulum in the form of a pebble suspended on a thread clearly shows that when oscillating, the plane of motion remains unchanged. This is a material model. On the other hand, the invariance of the plane can be proven on the basis of Newton’s 2nd law by considering the forces acting on the pendulum. This is a 
abstract model. In both versions, the object of study is the pendulum. In the first case, both the “pendulum” object itself and its action - oscillation - are modeled, and in the second - the abstract model describes only the actions. By the way, using the same material model, one can demonstrate another process - the rotation of the Earth. In the recent past, in St. Isaac's Cathedral in Leningrad, a Foucault pendulum hung, and a kind of dial was painted on the floor. The plane of motion of the pendulum did not change, and the dial rotated with the Earth. After some time, one could notice a shift in the divisions of the dial in relation to the pendulum. Material models Material models can otherwise be called objective, physical. They always have a real embodiment. Such models may reflect:
- external properties of source objects; internal structure of the original objects; the essence of processes and phenomena occurring with original objects.
The simplest examples of material models are children's toys. From them the child recognizes the external properties of surrounding objects. By disassembling some toys during the game (for example, a toy car), he gets the first idea about the structure of the original object and even about the principles of its operation. Processes in which a real object participates can be replaced in the material model by processes of a different physical nature. For example, in the same children's car, the movement process is ensured not by the operation of the internal combustion engine, but by a twisted spring or inertial mechanism. But at the same time, the principle of converting the rotational motion of the wheels into the forward motion of the car is respected. Material models may not resemble their prototypes. For example, a robot that replaces people in difficult and hazardous production is completely different from a person. This is a mechanical device, a manipulator. Only in children's books and cartoons are robots presented as a mechanical person. Since material models help to learn the properties of real objects and understand the “mechanism” of complex phenomena, they are often used in the learning process. Material models are a human skeleton and a stuffed bird in a biology class, a three-dimensional model of the solar system and a model of a multi-stage rocket in an astronomy class, an inclined plane with balls in a physics class, etc. Material models include not only school textbooks, but also various physical and chemical experiments. In experiments, actions on objects are simulated, for example, a reaction (action) between hydrogen and oxygen (substances, objects of study). This reaction, even with small amounts of starting substances, occurs with a deafening bang. The model is a warning about the consequences of the emergence of an “explosive mixture” of harmless and widespread substances in nature. The creation and use of material models refers to the experimental method of understanding the surrounding world. Abstract (immaterial) models A 
abstract models cannot be touched; they have no material embodiment. The basis of such models is information, and this type of modeling implements a theoretical method of cognition of the surrounding reality. The basis for further classification of abstract models will be the possibility of their implementation and research using a computer. On this basis, the following subclasses are distinguished: - mental and verbal; informational.
Such models accompany any conscious human activity. When going to make purchases, a person mentally imagines what and how much he can buy with the amount he has. When making plans for a vacation, he mentally plays out various vacation options and possible costs. While waiting for transport at a bus stop, he figures out how to get to the right place faster. Models of this type include the idea that arose in the mind of the inventor, and the musical theme that flashed through the thoughts of the composer, and the rhyme that was born in the head of the poet. In all the examples given, models preceded the creation of an object (a new device, a piece of music, a poem) and were one of the stages of the creative process. Similar models can arise in the viewer, listener, or reader as a reaction to already existing objects (music, painting, poem). A mental model can be expressed in conversational form. In this case, it is often called verbal (from the Latin ver-balis - oral). A person uses a verbal model to convey his thoughts to others. Information models The images that arise in different people as a reaction to the same objects and phenomena can vary greatly. Therefore, the image model is very individual and does not reflect the prototype with a sufficient degree of reliability. It is impossible to get an impression of a piece of music by hearing not the music, but a story about it. In order for information to be used for processing on a computer, it must be expressed using a system of signs, that is, formalized. The rules of formalization must be known and understandable to those who will create and use the model. Therefore, along with verbal and mental models, more rigorous information models are used. There are various systems of conventions, symbols, and agreements related to different areas of activity and suitable for describing models. Such a system and the rules for using its elements are called a language. The language can be colloquial, algorithmic, mathematical, coding language, etc. Information characterizing an object or process can have different forms of representation and be expressed by different means. According to the degree of formalization and rigor of description, this diversity can be divided into figurative-sign and sign models. 
A striking example of a figurative-sign model is a geographical map. The color and shape of the continents, oceans, mountains depicted on the map immediately activates imaginative thinking. You can immediately assess the relief by looking at the color on the map. For example, a person associates water with blue, and a flowering meadow or plain with green. The map is replete with symbols. Knowing this language, a person can obtain reliable information about the object of interest to him. The information model in this case will be the result of understanding the information obtained with the help of the senses and information encoded in the form of conventional images. The same can be said about painting. An inexperienced viewer will perceive the picture with the soul, in the form of a figurative model. But there are some artistic languages that correspond to various painting genres and schools: combinations of colors, stroke characteristics, methods of conveying air, volume, etc. It is easier for a person who knows these conventions to understand what he had in mind the artist, especially if the work does not relate to realism. In this case, the general perception of the picture (information model) will be the result of understanding the information in both image and symbolic forms. Another example of such a model is photography. The camera allows you to obtain an image of the original. Usually photography gives us a fairly accurate idea of a person’s appearance. There are some signs (forehead height, eye set, chin shape) by which experts can determine a person’s character and his propensity for certain actions. This special language is formed from information accumulated in the field of physiognomy and personal experience. Knowledgeable doctors, looking at a photo of a stranger, will see signs of certain diseases. Having set different goals, one and the same photograph can be used to obtain different information models. They will be the result of processing figurative information obtained when looking at a photograph, and information formed on the basis of knowledge of a special professional language. Figure 10.4 shows a figurative-symbolic model of city expenses in the form of a pie chart.
Rice. 10.4. A symbolic model of city expenses
According to the form of representation of figurative-sign models, the following groups can be distinguished among them:
- geometric models that display the appearance of the original (drawing, pictogram, drawing, plan, map, three-dimensional image); structural models that display the structure of objects and the relationships of their parameters (table, graph, diagram, diagram); verbal models recorded (described) by means of natural language; algorithmic models describing the sequence of actions.
- mathematical models, represented by mathematical formulas that display the relationship between various parameters of an object, system or process; special models presented in special languages (notes, chemical formulas, etc.); algorithmic models that represent a process in the form of a program written in a special language.
When we talk about a computer tool, we should understand that it works with information. Therefore, you need to proceed from what information and in what form a computer can perceive and process. A modern computer is capable of working with text, graphics, diagrams, tables, sound, video, etc. But to work with all this variety of information, both technical (hardware) and software support are needed. These two components are the tools of computer modeling. Application software environments are used by humans as an effective auxiliary tool for the implementation of their own plans. In other words, a person already knows what the model will be and uses a computer to give it a symbolic form. For example, graphical environments are used to build geometric models and diagrams. Word processors have wide possibilities for designing iconic models. These include built-in business graphics, sets of autoshapes, and software applications that allow you to include formulas, tables, electronic circuits, diagrams, etc. in the description. People use other software environments as a means of processing initial information and analyzing results. Here the computer acts as an intelligent assistant. An example of such computer information processing is sound processing. For this, specialized software is used, in particular a music editor. It allows you not only to type sheet music and print it, but also to arrange and listen to the work. Other programs allow you to combine a digital recording of a singer’s voice with a sound model of a melody, as well as synthesize (model) a human voice of different pitches and timbres (tenor, dramatic bass, etc.). There are programs with which the computer can create compositions independently in accordance with the entered conventions: rhythm, tempo, musical style, etc. Large amounts of information can be processed in a database environment. If you are going to explore a mathematical model, then neither a graphic or music editor, nor a database, nor a word processor will suit you. A powerful tool for studying such models is the spreadsheet environment. In this environment, the initial information sign model will be presented in tabular form, connecting elementary objects according to the rules for constructing connections in this environment. Another effective means of studying mathematical models, as well as constructing geometric models, is the programming environment. The computer model will be presented in it in the form of a program. Test questions and assignments - By what criteria can models be classified? Give examples of teaching models used in your school. Can a strategic computer game be called a gaming model? What do these games teach? On what basis are models divided into static and dynamic? What are material models? Give examples. What type of models would you classify epics as? What are they modeling? What imagery patterns do you have when you enter a house and smell something? What are information models? What are they “made” of? School history textbooks contain diagrams of military battles. Can they be called models? What type of models can they be classified as?
- What is a mathematical model? Give examples. Can an explanatory drawing for a problem be called a model? Explain your answer. What do you mean by computer model?
Topic 11. Main stages of modeling
