The construction of the Panama Canal has become one of the most important milestones in navigation. Commissioned in 1920 (the first ship passed through it in 1914, but due to a landslide in the fall of that year, the official traffic was opened only six years later), the canal several times shortened the route between the ports of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans - before, to get from one ocean to another, ships had to go around South America all the way around Cape Horn. Today, the Panama Canal is one of the world's main sea routes, through which about 18 thousand ships pass annually (the current carrying capacity of the canal is 48 ships per day), which makes up a significant part of the world cargo turnover. The history of the Panama Canal goes back to the 16th century, when the Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama and reach the Pacific coast - so it was discovered that the territory of modern Panama is only a narrow strip of land between the oceans. In 1539, the Spanish king sent an exploration expedition to study the possibility of building a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama, but the expedition reported to the king that this idea was not feasible. 
The first real attempt to build the Panama Canal was made by the French in 1879, under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, diplomat and head of the Suez Canal project, which had just opened in 1869. But building the Panama Canal was a much more difficult task. In 1889, the French project went bankrupt - the challenge posed by the Panamanian jungle with its tropical downpours, impenetrable swamps and at the same time rocky soils, floods and, worst of all, deadly epidemics of malaria, yellow fever, plague, typhoid and other diseases was too difficult. that killed about 20 thousand people in the first campaign. Then the United States took over the construction of the Panama Canal. The United States was interested in reducing the waterway from the ports of California to its Atlantic coast, and most importantly, the Panama Canal was of colossal military importance - it made it possible to transfer the fleet from one ocean basin to another almost instantly, which significantly increased the power and global influence of the States. In 1903, the United States bought out the Panamanian project from the French, ensured Panama independence from Colombia, which did not want to provide the Americans with the canal zone for, in fact, unlimited use, after which it signed a formal agreement with the new Panamanian government (which was again represented by the Frenchman Philippe-Jean Buno -Varilla, who was one of the main participants in the bankrupt first project). The treaty gave the United States a 5-kilometer zone on each side of the canal for indefinite use (that is, in fact, forever) and the exclusive right to occupy territories outside this zone as part of any measures to protect the waterway. Thus, the declaration of the channel as neutral and the guarantee of free passage through the channel of military and merchant ships of all nations, both in peacetime and in wartime, was destroyed by the American clause that these regulations would not apply to those measures that the United States deemed necessary to take to protect Panama and maintaining order in the channel. In fact, in a war in which the United States would participate, their military fortifications inevitably deprived the other belligerent side of the opportunity to use the channel on an equal footing. John Frank Stevens became the chief engineer of the Panama Canal. Taking into account the mistakes of the French, the Americans first of all took colossal measures to disinfect the construction zone and prevent tropical diseases. The project was also changed - according to the French project, the Panama Canal, like the Suez Canal, was supposed to be built on the same level with the oceans, without locks. This required a colossal amount of excavation work on the watershed section of the route. American engineers redesigned the project and proposed a sluice canal with three stages of sluices on each side and a watershed 26 meters above ocean level. On the watershed, the Gatun reservoir was created, into which ships from the Atlantic side rose at the Gatun locks, and from the Pacific side - at the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks. The Panama Canal was opened in 1920 and remained under US control for many years. There were dozens of American military bases in the canal zone, and about 50,000 military and civilian specialists worked. Over time, dissatisfaction with this began to grow in Panama more and more, and in 1977 an agreement was signed on the gradual transfer of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama. In reality, this process took more than two decades, and finally the canal zone passed into the possession of Panama on December 31, 1999. The length of the channel is 81.6 kilometers, of which 65.2 kilometers are actually on land and another 16.4 kilometers along the bottom of the Panama and Limonskaya bays to deep water. Vessels that are large enough to pass through the Panama Canal are called Panamax class vessels. This standard was the main one for marine vessels until the early 1990s, when the active construction of Post-Panamax class vessels (mainly tankers) began, the dimensions of which are larger than the size of the Panama Canal locks. Today, the cost of one passage of the Panama Canal depends on the type and size of the vessel and ranges from $ 800 for a small yacht to $ 500,000 for the largest vessels. There were also amusing cases - for example, in 1928, they took 36 cents from the famous American traveler Richard Hallibarton, who sailed through a canal from one ocean to another. The Panama Canal today is not only one of the world's most important transport links, but also the main tourist attraction of Panama. At the Panama Canal, there is now a large tourist center at the Miraflores locks, where from several special viewing platforms you can see the locks and ships passing them, while the loudspeaker tells about each ship, its route and what it transports. There are other tours - by buses along the canal, by rail, trips on small boats; On some standard Caribbean cruises, cruise ships climb the Atlantic slope of the canal through the Gatun locks to the watershed and then return to the Caribbean Sea (and tourists can sail the rest of the Panama Canal by boat as part of the excursion). But by far the best, unique and most enthusiastic way to see the Panama Canal is to cross it entirely on a cruise ship, cross it from the Atlantic to the Pacific (or vice versa) and continue the cruise further in a completely different ocean basin. Absolutely everyone, even the most seasoned travelers, prepares for the passage of the Panama Canal in a completely special way. The passage of the Panama Canal itself takes on average about 9 hours, not counting the waiting time for ships on huge sea roadsteads on each side. The cruise ship, of course, goes on schedule, and goes to the canal immediately, out of turn. Zaandam arrives at the Panama Canal Zone at approximately 5am. The entrance to the spacious approach area of the Panama Canal from the Caribbean Sea is marked by powerful lighthouses and protected by many kilometers of dams. At the entrance to the canal in the roadstead, dozens of ships of all sizes and stripes are waiting for their turn, brightly lit in the night. And on the coast of the bay is the city and port of Colon, with a huge container terminal. The same container terminal is located at the other entrance to the canal - thus, container ships of the Post-Panamax class (that is, the size of which is larger than the Panama Canal locks) are unloaded at these entry ports, containers with cargo are transported along the railway along the canal, and then on the other side they are loaded onto new ships and continue the route. The railway between the ports is also used for partial unloading of large container ships passing through the canal to reduce their draft. It's five in the morning, just dawning, but most tourists are already on their feet: the entrance to the Panama Canal is one of the central events of the cruise! We go into the approaching water area, from the board in the predawn twilight the lights of the port of Colon are visible. 
Having taken on board a group of pilots, we are heading to the entrance - from the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal begins with a three-step staircase of Gatun locks, in which ships rise from the level of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed section of the canal. 
To the left of the existing two-line locks, an additional third line of the Panama Canal locks is being built since 2007. 
They will be significantly larger than the existing ones and will increase the maximum size and draft of vessels that can navigate through the canal. If the current locks have dimensions of 304.8 x 33.5 and a depth of 12.8 meters, then the new ones - respectively 427 x 55 x 18.3. In addition to the construction of the second stage of locks, the fairway at the Culebra dividing notch is being widened and deepened in order to make two-way traffic of vessels possible along the entire length of the canal (now the traffic and lock on the Panama Canal is essentially one-way - at first there is a group of vessels in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and the vessels diverge on wider lake sections of the route). With the end of this massive renovation, the Panama Canal's capacity will double. Old and new locks of the Panama Canal 
Longitudinal profile of the Panama Canal 
Route plan 
At 6-30 am we approach the Gatun locks. The movement of ships along one of the most important transport links in the world goes on continuously, from the bow of the Zaandam, you can clearly see how four ships rise up the locks in front of us, two in each line. 
On the bank of the canal there are huge gates for the second stage locks under construction - they were made in Italy and were delivered to the canal recently, at the end of August 2013. 
We approach the first gateway. Sluggish seagoing vessels are moved from chamber to chamber with the help of special locomotives, to which mooring lines are attached and pulled. Locomotives with tensioned mooring lines attached to them accompany the vessel from four sides (at the bow and stern from each side) - thus, a perfectly clear entry of huge sea vessels into a chamber, which is quite small in comparison with their size, is carried out. Mooring lines from locomotives on board the vessel are served by boat. 
The mooring lines are fixed - let's go! 
We go into the first lock chamber - the ships rise from the Caribbean Sea to the watershed section in the three-stage Gatun locks. The total lifting height is 26 meters. Accordingly, a little less than nine meters per step. But from the side of a huge sea liner, this nine-meter drop is not perceived as significant. 
There is incredible excitement on the decks! 
After the United States finally withdrew from the Panama Canal in 1999, the unique structure is entirely independently maintained and serviced by Panama. The channel is in good hands! 
The locomotive, starting the ship from the stern on the starboard side, deftly climbs up. Now the gates will close and the sluicing will begin. 
Having risen in the first, we go to the second chamber. 
One of the Panama Canal webcams is installed in the Gatun locks, which broadcast the picture on the Internet in real time. At this moment, many of my friends and colleagues are watching us go through the gateways. This is how the "Zaandam" slowly ascending the Atlantic slope of the Panama Canal looks like from the side. 
Having finished sluicing in the third chamber, "Zaandam" rises to the level of the watershed section of the canal. From the stern, there is a stunning view of the descending staircase of locks and the vessels going up along it behind us. Captures the spirit! Far below, the expanse of the Caribbean Sea is spread. And to us - to the Pacific Ocean. Goodbye Atlantic! 
Having risen in the Gatun locks, the ship enters the lake of the same name. Lake Gatun is actually a large reservoir, formed on the watershed by a large dam on the Chagres River, which is clearly visible on the right side. 
The canal is fed with water from Lake Gatun. Such canals, in which the reservoir that feeds them with water is located on the watershed, from which water is distributed by gravity to both slopes, are called canals with natural feeding (gravity). In our country, these are the Volga-Baltic and White Sea-Baltic channels. On Lake Gatun there is another raid of ships waiting for their turn at the locks and waiting for the end of the lock of those who go to meet. When the second stage of the Panama Canal is put into operation, traffic along the entire length of the route will become completely two-way. 
The path through the Gatun Reservoir is about half of the entire length of the Panama Canal. Admiring the surrounding landscapes of the equatorial belt from the deck. 
The fairway is narrow and rather winding. The waterway is marked with special buoys. 
At the Gatun reservoir there is a divergence of ships going in opposite directions. A caravan of ships is approaching, having passed the locks of the Pacific slope in the morning and is now heading towards the Atlantic slope of the canal. Large tankers, dry cargo ships, container ships pass by ... 
From the bridges of oncoming cargo ships, they are also looking at Zaandam with interest. The passage of cruise ships through the Panama Canal is a rather rare event. 
On the left side of the board you can see the confluence of the Chagres River, which is crossed by the bridge. The Gatun reservoir ends there. Further, the route of the canal passes through the artificially dug Culebra cut. 
A railway runs along the Panama Canal route, which transports containers from the Atlantic to the Pacific ports and vice versa. Sometimes tourist trains run along it. 
We go by the Culebra notch - the narrowest part of the Panama Canal. In some parts of the canal, ships are escorted by tugs. A whole special flotilla is working on the Panama Canal. 
In the place where the Culebra notch crosses a high mountain range, the banks rise steeply upward in steps, and in the distance the Centennial Bridge is already visible. It was built in 2004 and became the second permanent bridge across the canal. By the way, bridges across the Panama Canal connect two continents - let's not forget that the Panama Canal not only connects two oceans, but also separates two Americas. The motto of Panama and the Panama Canal, "A Land Divided - A World United", I think, is understandable without additional translation. Now we have North America on our starboard side, and South America on our port side. 
Rising stone ledges and reinforced with powerful anchors, the slopes of the excavation in this place resemble some fantastic Mayan pyramids. In principle, in terms of its grandeur, the Panama Canal is a structure quite comparable to them. The volume of rocky soil, developed during the creation of the Culebra excavation, is equal in volume to 63 pyramids of Cheops in Egypt. 
The bridge is left behind. 
Soon after the bridge, the dividing section of the canal ends and the descent to the Pacific Ocean begins, which ships also overcome with three 9-meter steps. But the Pacific slope is slightly more gentle - if on the Atlantic slope all three steps are in a row in the Gatun locks, then there are two groups of locks - Pedro Miguel (1 step) and Miraflores (2 steps), separated by a small intermediate pool. So, we go into the Pedro Miguel locks. 
Approximately the same view opens from the captain's bridge. In this perspective, you can clearly see how narrow the lock chamber is compared to the colossal dimensions of ocean-going ships. Even in the presence of locomotives guiding the vessel, jeweler's precision is required from navigators. All ships go along the canal with a group of local pilots. 
The locomotives drive the tanker "Emerald Express" into the parallel chamber. 
At this time on its decks. 
Having finished sluicing at the Pedro Miguel locks, the Zaandam emerges into the small Lake Miraflores, just like Lake Gatun, formed by the dam. Here we will have to wait a little - a huge floating crane is being pulled towards us along a parallel line of locks, and for some time the ships have been going along only one line. 
We go out into the water area and stop. We'll have to wait half an hour for the ship in front of us to float in two chambers, and it's our turn. 
The ships following us are also waiting - a small traffic jam! 
On the left, you can see a dam on the river, which formed the Miraflores reservoir. 
Finally, the lock chambers are cleared and ready to receive our ship. This arrow indicates to skippers which of the two lines to navigate. 
We go into the left chamber, and towards us from the right chamber the tug, at last, slowly takes out a huge floating crane, the "culprit" of the traffic jam. Now the locking process will go much faster again. 
Near the top left chamber is the Panama Canal Visitor Center. There are several large open areas here, from where anyone can look at the ships going through the locks. 
There is also a webcam, from which our ship is seen most of all on the channel. Separated from the crowd, here you can pose gorgeous to your friends and say hello to the Motherland, awake at midnight! At this moment, from the outside, we look like this. 
Saying goodbye to friends, we disappear from the field of view of video cameras. Now we will see you in two weeks at home, but for now, "Zaandam" is heading to the last chamber of the Miraflores lock, after which it will leave the Panama Canal, enter the Pacific Ocean and continue cruising along the coast of South America. On observation platforms the tourist center "Miraflores" is not crowded. The passage of a cruise ship through the canal is a significant event and a unique opportunity for many overland tourists to take rare footage. 
Excitement !!! 
The gate of the last chamber of the Miraflores locks closes - the final lock, and we again find ourselves at ocean level. 
Before the construction of two permanent bridges, this drawbridge operated on the Panama Canal, through which for 50 years the connection between the two Americas was carried out. 
The locomotive driver at work. 
Locking is over - let's go to the exit! 
The Pacific Slope locks of the Panama Canal are left behind. 
On the Pacific slope, the construction of the second stage of locks is also actively underway - here the outline of the future new water staircase is already visible. 
We head towards the exit. 
We leave the Pacific container port on the left. 
The exit to the Pacific Ocean is unusually beautiful - we pass under the openwork arch of the Bridge of Americas, opened in 1962. 
On the left, there is a magnificent panorama of the city of Panama surrounded by green hills, the capital of the state of the same name. 
The pilot boat picks up the pilots accompanying the ship on the Panama Canal, and, giving a good-natured siren goodbye, returns back. 
There are also many ships at the entrance to the Panama Canal on the Pacific side. 
A fresh breeze blows in your face, going out into the open space "Zaandam" is accompanied by a flock of birds ... 
We are in the Pacific Ocean! 
Who is this?
That's right, mule. A child of a donkey and a horse.
Does it have anything to do with modern shipping?
Where is the mule and where is the modern ship?
And here it is.
Once, mules were used as traction for towing ships along rivers. Well, like barge haulers ... somewhere. Then the iron horse replaced the peasant horse. And this iron horse was also named a mule in honor of those draft mules.
Panama Canal.
Locomotives who have not yet grown up who help to lead the ship through the canal are called mules there. Then mules grow up, become big electric locomotives, well, and ...
In this contract, they went through the Panama Canal. From the Pacific to the Atlantic. How the canal was built, who built it. I will not talk about it. Just about how we went.
At first we were frightened by the fact that if we didn’t come to that date, we would lose our turn and stick around to the nearest passage on the roadstead of day 10. Then, with the draft that we didn’t fire there. It ended well. And they had time, and dealt with the draft. But they stayed in the roadstead for a day anyway.
The ubiquitous Chinese.
Panama City. we are standing far away. 
Somewhere at 23 o'clock we weighed anchor and went into the channel. We approached the locks at 2 am. Took on board a brigade of mooring crews, it is they who take the steel ends from the mules, the crew does not participate. Our helmsman. It seems that the helmsman comes along with the pilot only in the Kiel Canal.
Night. Jumped out on deck late. The ends have already been put in and the gateway is being closed.
From zhezh, did not have time. He darted towards the deck. Sluice wall. The gates will be closed and they will begin to lift us.
They lift very quickly, the pumps are good. The canal has two lines, that is, it can guide ships in different directions. But for some reason they went along two lines into one. And here is the mule of the next line.
And this is our ... mule.
We had four locomotives. Two on the tank, two on the stern from different sides. In addition to helping in broaching, the locomotives also center the ship in the canal, we go through almost grinding.
It has already passed two docks, you can see how the next steamer enters next.
The level of the next sluice is lowered, a steamer is being started there.
We pass the dock, making room for the waiting list.
The little locomotive puffs and whistles like a real folder. And he can climb the slides like a real mule.
The assistant of the iron mule came in.
And we are already approaching the exit from the locks.
Neighbor.
Now we are about 25 meters above the Pacific Ocean level.
Bridge over the canal.
Dawn breaks.
It's narrow here and the tug helps a little. And for insurance. Soon he will leave us and return.
Along the canal, but along the narrow one.
Some Maya or Aztecs muddied the pyramid, then spat and began to dig a channel.
More profitable business.
The jungle, however. How do they survive there? Boggles the mind.
And the tug fled home.
The channel is being serviced.
Shrew's jaws.
The lake begins, it becomes wider. Ducts, islands.
Time is about 10 am. We anchor and await further escort.
Tugs are running towards us. Soon we will move too.
Handsome man. Already he spun in front of us this way and that.
And the breeze ... so something rose. Lake.
And here came the caravan from the Atlantic.
Well, we set off too. Balaban, a Turk. Will follow us. He was a neighbor in the first airlocks. And the container ship is right behind us.
Neighboring branch and we are approaching.
The locomotives gave in, went to the dock.
Remus is already sitting down as we stand.
So our gates are being closed.
View from the bridge. Neighbor Remus is exactly from gate to gate in length, and almost close to the walls in width. A pictorial representation of the Panamax class of ships, that is, the maximum size that can pass through the canal.
And in front of us we can see the "steps" along which we will go down.
And here are the stands for visitors and sightseers.
And now we sit down. And the waiting list is let down.
Carpenter with Remus poses.
Remus moved. He has more mules than we have.
And we continue to sit down.
Everything is old, but it works.
We also moved.
Now down, but down the hill.
It was established for the visitors how the gate opening mechanism works.
Go to the last dock ...
And this is a stables-depot for servicing locomotive mules.
From a hill.
Last doc ..
Cheerful Panamanian guys.
And remus is practically everything. The gap between the side and the wall is clearly visible.
And our turn is coming.
A little more ...
Ultimate in mules. The ends are thrown off. That's it, we're in the Atlantic.
By the way, there is no bridge on this side of the canal. Therefore, the cars are waiting for the steamer to pass, there a bridge is brought down for them and they pass. Such is the line. Steamer-auto-steamer-auto. The bridge itself did not have time to take a picture, only a line of cars.
The mooring officers were dropped off. They bring commemorative medals, coins, magnets, T-shirts, baseball caps for sale. I also bought a couple of magnets, but what about?
When they were still walking with them, one showed me some gray logs on the shore. It was already getting dark, and you couldn't tell what was there. The mooring officer said they were alligators. Yah? Well, yes! And he told such a story like alligators sometimes lock together with steamers and go into the lake. I don't even know whether to believe it or not. On the other hand, nothing human is alien to alligators. Visit there or get married. Nice thing.
Well, four days later we arrived in Port Everglades, Florida. USA. One last look at the channel.
Someone calls it a high-speed waterway, someone the eighth wonder of the world, someone a bridge between east and west. It is also called an artery, an incredible mega-structure, bottleneck, a monument to perseverance and heroism, as well as a water corridor. It is considered one of the greatest and most complex buildings in the entire history of human existence, and is called the Panama Canal.
This navigable lock canal, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama and connects the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, has had a tremendous impact on the development of shipping and the economy throughout the Earth as a whole. Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route for ships from the largest metropolis of New York to the city of San Francisco has been reduced by as much as 13,000 kilometers. At its core, the Panama Canal is a sea route carved into the ground for the passage of cargo and passenger ships. It is located in one of the narrowest places in South America. At the end of the 19th century, a fabulous sum was spent on the construction of the canal, about $ 300 million.
Functioning system and technical features channel
The length of the canal is 81 kilometers and 600 meters, the minimum width of the canal is limited by the width of the lock chambers to 33.5 meters, and the depth is 12 meters. The canal administration has established the following passage dimensions for ships: length - 294.1 meters, width - 32.3 meters, draft - 12 meters in fresh tropical water, height - 57.91 meters, size from the waterline to the highest point of the vessel. In exceptional cases, ships may be granted permission to pass at a height of 62.5 meters, provided that the passage is made in low water.
In the Foto The Panama Canal is a two-way canal
The locks work according to the following principle: the gates are opened and a ship, towed by a heavy locomotive, enters the first lock. After that, the gate is closed, and the sluice is filled or emptied (depending on the purpose of this sluice) through the valves.
In the Foto Panama Canal Lock System
When the level in one lock is equal to the next, the lock gate opens and the vessel continues to tow. The Panama Canal itself generates energy, under the influence of which the gates are opened or closed and the locks are filled.
In the Foto Ships not wider than 32.3 meters are allowed to pass through the Panama Canal
When the ship goes along the canal, it is accompanied from two different sides by several mini trains (locomotives), nicknamed "mules" among sailors. They help the vessel to stay in the center of the lock and not touch the walls.
Mini trains (locomotives) have a walkie-talkie that receives signals from the navigator of the ship, but does not transmit anything to the ship.
In the Foto Each such "mule" weighs 55 tons
There are three locks on the Panama Canal: Gatun on the Atlantic side, Pedro Miguel and Miraflores on the Pacific side.
Entering from the Atlantic Ocean, the ships undergo "lock tests" - they rise through three steps of the Gatun locks to the artificial lake Gatun, which is formed by the Gatun dam. From Lake Gatun, ships pass the 12-kilometer Culebra cut and through the Pedro-Miguel locks descend into Lake Miraflores, pass the two-stage Miraflores locks and exit into the Gulf of Panama.
The ship passes through the Panama Canal in an average of 8 hours and rises 26 meters above sea level. The minimum passage time for the Panama Canal is 4 hours 10 minutes.
The maximum throughput is 48 vessels per day. Annually, about 17.5 thousand ships, carrying more than 203 million tons of cargo, pass through the canal facilities.
The channel passes through itself a variety of ships - from private yachts to huge tankers and container ships. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass the Panama Canal has become the standard in shipbuilding, dubbed Panamax.
How much does a big swim cost?
The number of ships wishing to sail on the Panama Canal is incredibly large. Sometimes ships wait for their turn for weeks. Of course, the luxury of going from one ocean to another in just 8 hours comes at a high cost. A special price is set for each vessel, depending on its size and weight. Each ship pays to navigate the Panama Canal. The cost of the passage for a small yacht is about US $ 800 and for the largest ship it is about US $ 500,000.
In addition, there are people for whom every second is important and they cannot wait: there are special auctions for them. The one who pays the highest amount will be able to skip the line and go through the canal. For example, one day 90 ships lined up in front of the entrance to the Panama Canal. An auction was held, which was won by a tanker named Erikoussa, who did not regret paying for an extraordinary passage through the Panama Canal $ 220,400 instead of the legal $ 13,400.
As for the collection of money for the passage of ships, it is carried out by a state institution - the Administration of the Panama Canal.
Panama Canal millionaires
The ship on the Panama Canal is carried out by special navigators, this is a very honorable and highly paid job in Panama. Depending on the type of vessel, the number of navigators varies from one to three. Panama navigators are the local elite and can earn up to $ 24,000 a month, while the minimum wage in Panama is $ 450. Also, at the Panama Canal, a kind of sailors work, whose function is to establish a connection between the locomotor and the ship. They swim in boats with a rope, take one end of the rope that is pulled from the boat and connect it to the locomotive.
Channel modernization
100 years have passed and modern ships have become very large for the Panama Canal. The ship that does not fit into the 33.5 meter wide canal locks is called Post-Panamax. This means that it is too large for passage on the waterway. The canal modernization process has already begun. Today, a Post-Panamax-sized vessel bypasses the canal and Panama is losing millions of dollars. The canal expansion project consists of building a new sluice system on both sides and expanding the old sluices to accommodate Post-Panamax-sized ships. A new 6 km long navigation canal will connect the Pacific Gateway to the Gaillard Cut Canal.
In the Foto
Dramatic story
"Panama" is called the capital of the state of Panama, as well as various major financial frauds! This word came into circulation after the construction of the Panama Canal, which, by a strange coincidence, became the biggest scam of the late 19th century and a dark spot in the history of the state. The construction of the canal caused a huge economic boom, both among the big tycoons and financial tycoons and among the common people. Every American at that time was trying to acquire shares of the Panama Canal, which promised incredible profits.
The construction of the canal began in 1880, workers and engineers from all over the world came to Panama, and Ferdinand Leseps commanded the grandiose construction project, under whose leadership the Suez Canal was dug. The "Universal Company of the Interoceanic Canal" was created, the shares of which were acquired by more than 800 thousand. human. By 1888, 2 times more money was spent on the construction of the canal than expected, and only a third of the work was completed. The reason was the wrong project (Ferdinand Lesseps insisted that the canal be dug at sea level) and the inability to cope with diseases - malaria and yellow fever - due to which workers died. There is information that at least 20 thousand died. human. The canal construction went into disrepute, doctors could not cope with yellow fever, people fled from construction, and some groups of workers even brought their own coffins from France with them. The company went bankrupt, and thousands of small shareholders went bankrupt. Further investigation revealed facts of mass corruption, bribery by the company of officials and newspaper editors. This gamble was called Panama, and since then the word "Panama" has become synonymous with scam and fraud. As a result, Ferdinand Lesseps was accused of a major scam and arrested, he certainly did not want to enrich himself in this way, therefore, unable to withstand the blow of fate, he lost his mind.
In the Foto Spanish workers at the construction site of the Panama Canal (photo taken before 1900)
In 1904, the Americans got down to business. They had new precautions and a new construction plan. The French wanted to build a canal at sea level, while the Americans opted for a sluice system that raises and lowers ships passing through the canal in accordance with the landscape.
In general, the Isthmus of Panama is one of the most difficult geological areas of the earth's surface - mountainous, covered with impenetrable jungle and deep swamps. The mountains here, formed by volcanic activity, are a mixture of hard rock with soft rock, a mixture of disorder and located at different angles. The canal builders went through 6 large geological faults and 5 centers of volcanic activity. If we add to this the scorching sun, very high humidity, abundant tropical rains typical for these places, as well as the regular floods of the Chagres River, which sometimes take catastrophic proportions and yellow fever, then the chances of building such a structure as the Panama Canal were very small. It is good that the engineers of the past did not have detailed information about the geology of the isthmus and about all the other natural "surprises", otherwise the Panama Canal would hardly ever have been built.
In the Foto The canal builders passed 6 large geological faults and 5 centers of volcanic activity
Remembering the unsuccessful first attempt to dig the canal, the Americans sent an entire army, led by 1,500 people, to hunt mosquitoes. The scale of this operation is eloquently indicated by the following data: it was necessary to cut down and burn 30 square kilometers of shrubs and trees, mow and burn grass in the same area, drain a million square yards of swamps, dig 250 thousand feet (76.2 km) of drainage ditches and restore 2 million feet (609.6 km) of old ditches, spray 150 thousand gallons (567.8 thousand liters) of oils that destroy mosquito larvae in breeding grounds. This paid off: yellow fever disappeared, malaria cases decreased and the main problem was resolved.
In the Foto Large blocks were taken out using carts, and clay and small rubble were washed off with water
It took 10 years of hard work to build the canal. They dug canals, drilled rocks, blew up hills, and rebuilt the railroad to move earth. But this time, safer conditions were created for the workers, and yet even at this construction site, another 5,000 people died. After 10 years, the project was completed with a delay of two years. These were powerful gateways and channels that the world had not yet seen. The Panama Canal has been hailed as the greatest engineering feat in human history.
Some interesting facts about the Panama Canal
1. The channel has been operating continuously for 95 years since its official opening, the first time it was suspended in December 2010 due to heavy rainfall.
2. Prior to the construction of the canal, about 2 million gallons of kerosene were used to spray the marshes of the future construction site to kill the Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and the malaria mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever and malaria, respectively.
3. For the solemn confluence of the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, 20 tons of dynamite were laid. The explosion was carried out by pressing a button located in the White House. On the morning of October 13, 1913, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson, in the presence of numerous dignitaries gathered in the White House, went to a special table and with a majestic gesture pressed the gilded button. And at the same instant, a powerful explosion shook the humid tropical air four thousand kilometers from Washington, on the Isthmus of Panama. Twenty thousand kilograms of dynamite destroyed the last barrier at the city of Gamboa, separating the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. A cable four thousand kilometers long, specially laid from the jumper at Gamboa to the White House, obediently fulfilled the president's will.
4. Initially, the United States planned to build a canal not through Panama, but through Nicaragua, but the volcanic eruption prevented them from implementing this idea.
5. It is known that the broad support of the Soviet Union for the Sandinista government of Nicaragua was carried out with the intention of building an interoceanic canal controlled by the USSR.
The Panama Canal is called the eighth wonder of the world for a reason... This masterpiece of engineering is one of the world's most intense, longest and most challenging man-made waterways. And hardly any other engineering structure on Earth has such a rich and dramatic history.
Let's remember her ...
The Panama Canal is a shipping canal that connects the Panama Gulf of the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, located on the Isthmus of Panama in the territory of the state of Panama.
Length - 81.6 km, including 65.2 km by land and 16.4 km along the bottom of the Panama and Limonskaya bays (for the passage of ships to deep water).
The construction of the Panama Canal has become one of the largest and most complex construction projects carried out by mankind. The Panama Canal has had an invaluable impact on the development of shipping and the economy in general in the Western Hemisphere and throughout the Earth, which has led to its extremely high geopolitical importance.
Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km.
Panama was discovered in 1501 by the Spanish conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. Vasco Nunez de Balboa sailed with Bastidas - he was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama, spending weeks on the way to the Pacific Ocean. In 1519 Balboa was falsely accused of treason and executed, but thanks to him the Isthmus of Panama got on the maps. Since the idea of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by water, so as not to make a long-term passage full of dangers around South America, did not leave the minds of sailors and merchants.
In 1502, Christopher Columbus founded the village of Santa Maria de Belém at the mouth of the Belém River, which was soon destroyed by the Indians. In 1509 the Spaniards established a colony on the coast of Darien Bay. Ten years later, the city of Panama was founded - the current capital of the state of the same name. The Spaniards carried the mined gold, silver, and jewelry along a stone road called Camino real - the Royal Route. From the city of Panama on the Pacific coast, the treasures were ferried to Puerto Bello (Portobelo) on the Atlantic.
In 1529, a Spanish officer, an eminent mathematician and geographer named Alvaro de Saavedra Seron, proposed four options for digging the canal. He died without having time to acquaint any of the powers that be with his projects, but five years later, King Charles V of Spain personally ordered to survey the shores of Panama in search of a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama. In 1550, the Portuguese sailor Antonio Galvao published a book outlining four designs, largely overlapping with those of Saavedra. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German naturalist and traveler Alexander Humboldt had already proposed nine plans for digging a canal, including through the northern part of the American continent.
By the end of the 18th century, the then well-known gold and silver mines were developed, and the importance of the path across the isthmus began to gradually decline. In addition, there was a constant threat of pirate attacks. But, losing its importance for Spain, the path through the Isthmus of Panama became more and more important for the young power, growing and gaining strength - the United States. In 1846, the United States entered into a treaty of friendship, trade and navigation with New Granada, which then included Panama. The American side pledged to guarantee the inviolability of the Isthmus of Panama. At the same time, the United States received a concession to build a railroad through it. It turned out to be a timely move. Gold was discovered in California in 1849, and thousands of people flocked to San Francisco. An American company began construction of the railway, which cost a huge amount and about 60 thousand human lives.
The road less than 80 kilometers long was completed only in 1855. In order to recoup the costs, the company inflated freight rates unreasonably, taking advantage of its monopoly. However, this monopoly did not last long: other companies established regular service around Cape Horn, which was much cheaper, although it took more time. And the direct path across the isthmus fell into desolation for the second time. At that time, between the United States and Great Britain there was a "treaty of mutual distrust" - the Clayton-Bulwer agreement, according to which both sides waived their exclusive rights to build the canal. France took advantage of this contradiction.
The Universal Interoceanic Canal Company was created, headed by the diplomat and entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal. After Suez, Lesseps became a national hero, he was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences and received the title of engineer, although he did not have any technical education.
On January 1, 1880, a groundbreaking ceremony took place at the mouth of the Rio Grande. The maximum number of workers involved in construction was 19,000 people. I work was carried out on a grand scale, but by 1885, only one tenth of what was planned was completed. The main reason for this was the technical difficulties unforeseen by the project and the tropical climate. The proximity of malaria marshes caused outbreaks of disease among workers living in unsanitary conditions. Hundreds of people died from yellow fever. The lack of timely medical assistance and the necessary medicines led to huge casualties among the builders.
The Isthmus of Panama is one of the most difficult geological areas of the earth's surface - mountainous, covered with impenetrable jungle and deep swamps. The mountains here, formed by volcanic activity, are a mixture of hard rock with soft rock, and the mixture is disordered and located at different angles. The canal builders went through 6 large geological faults and 5 centers of volcanic activity. Add to this the scorching sun, very high humidity, abundant tropical rains typical for these places, as well as the regular floods of the Chagres River, which sometimes take on catastrophic proportions, and, of course, yellow fever. It is good that the engineers of the past did not have detailed information about the geology of the isthmus and about all the other natural "surprises", otherwise the Panama Canal would hardly ever have been built.
Lesseps decided to found a joint stock company - the last time the idea turned out to be successful. Three years after the completion of the construction of the Suez Canal, it began to generate net profit, and before nationalization in 1955, the company paid out 12.4 billion francs to shareholders. But in this case Lesseps' enterprise ended in complete failure and became a tragedy for many Frenchmen.
In 1876 Lesseps acquired the project of the engineer Vaz and the concession. It took 10 million francs. In 1880, a report was drawn up, according to which the costs were estimated at 843 million francs. As it turned out later, this amount was very underestimated. On February 1, 1881, construction began on the Panama Canal. It was supposed to run at sea level, without locks and dams. A tunnel should have been built through the pass at the junction of the Veragua and San Blas mountain ranges (87 meters above sea level).
Material difficulties began almost immediately. Few people wanted to invest in the construction of a canal somewhere on the other side of the world. I had to carry out a wide advertising campaign, and for this I had to pay a substantial sum to banks and print media. The railway, which intersects the route of the future canal, had to be bought from the Americans for an amount three times its cost. For the years 1879-1889, expenses amounted to 1274 million francs. Meanwhile, construction has hardly progressed.
At the end of 1887, under pressure from the young engineer Philippe Buno-Varigli, Lesseps was forced to agree to the transition to the sluice canal. As conceived by the engineer, the highest level of the canal should have been 52 meters, and this circumstance entailed the need to revise the project. For this, engineer Alexander Gustave Eiffel was called from Paris, who was just finishing the construction of his legendary tower, so that he would get involved in the work and prepare the project of the canal using locks. But all efforts to revive the rapidly declining work were in vain, due to lack of money they were suspended at the 72 meter mark.
The financial difficulties of the Panama company grew from year to year. In 1885 Lesseps and his colleagues decided to improve the company's affairs by issuing a long-term winning loan. The issue of such a loan required the consent of the government and parliament - the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, because private companies did not have the legal right to conduct lotteries. The company began processing journalists, ministers and parliamentarians to make changes to the law. Baron de Reinach distributed over four million francs in cash bribes to all echelons of power!
The struggle over the state's sanction to issue a winning loan lasted for about three years. The company could no longer hide either the unsatisfactory progress of work on the isthmus, or its financial problems. The halo of Lesseps faded, and his physical strength was at the end.
The Panamanian company, in order to stay afloat, issued two more regular loans that did not require permission from the authorities. To attract subscribers, she made the bonds especially attractive by raising the nominal (so-called coupon) interest rate to 10% per annum. The banks that placed bonds had to pay more and more expensively.
In April 1888, the House of Deputies approved a loan, supported by the Senate and the President, and the ceiling was increased to 720 million francs. President Theodore Roosevelt actively supported the Panama project, for which he was later accused of the fact that government money did not reach French investors, but settled in Morgan's pockets.
The bond subscription, which began in June 1888, ended in complete failure almost immediately. It raised only 254 million, of which 31 million were the issuance costs of the banks. Finally, the law required the company to set aside a special reserve fund from the collected money as a guarantee for the payment of winnings and the redemption of bonds.
The leaders of the Panama company, led by father and son Lesseps, continued to make desperate efforts to avoid bankruptcy, assuring shareholders at a shareholders' meeting that the construction would be completed on time and money would flow to the company's cashier.
They undertook a trip around the country with speeches about the guarantee of their honesty. But after the deputies' refusal to support the draft law on the preferential treatment of debts, the end has come. The Seine Department of Civil Court on February 4, 1889, officially declared bankruptcy and liquidation of the Panama Company and appointed a liquidator.
At the time of bankruptcy, after eight years of building the canal, only two-fifths of the work had been completed. The Panamanian company raised 1.3 billion francs by issuing shares and bonds. Of these, 104 million francs were paid to banks as commission fees, 250 million - as interest on bonds and for their redemption. The contractor companies were paid 450 million francs, but a significant part of the work on the estimate was not completed.
In the process of liquidation of the company, it turned out that there were no liquid assets left on its balance sheet, with the exception of a giant, unfinished ditch and a heap of rusting equipment in the jungle of Central America. The number of investors who lost all their savings after the bankruptcy of the Panama company reached, according to various estimates, 700-800 thousand people.
Three years after the financial collapse, in 1892, a corruption scandal erupted when the French nationalist press began to publish revelations of the massive bribery of politicians, government officials and the press by the administration of the Panama Company, which tried to hide from the public the deplorable state of the company and obtain permission to conduct a »A winning loan.
Numerous financial abuses were exposed, first of all - universal corruption of all branches of government. Charges of accepting bribes were brought against 510 MPs who took bribes not furtively in an envelope, but with a bank check!
The scandal led to the fall of three French governments. Many ministers were involved in it, including the future Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, and almost none of them was brought to justice.
On the dock were the elder and younger de Lesseps, Gustave Eiffel, several company managers and a former minister of public works. In 1893, they were sentenced to various prison terms (Eiffel - to two years and a 20 thousand francs fine), but four months later these sentences were annulled by the cassation court, and the defendants in the case were released.
Ferdinand de Lesseps, due to his advanced age and services to the country, was released from prison. The health of Lesseps, significantly undermined over the years spent in Panama, was seriously damaged in this situation. He went mad and died in December 1894 at the age of 89. Charles lived until 1923, having seen the Panama Canal in action and learned that the good name of him and his father had been restored ...
Ferdinan de Lesseps experienced both the intoxication of success - this is Suez, and the bitterness of disappointment - this is Panama. When he managed to unite the two seas, the sovereigns and nations paid him honor, but after he was defeated, not mastering the rocks of the Cordillera, he turned into an ordinary swindler ...
As soon as the passions subsided, it turned out that the defrauded investors could save at least part of their money only on the condition that the construction continued. In the year Lesseps died, in 1894, a new Panama Canal Company was created in France, which very slowly but continued construction and survey work.
The Americans, who bought the property of the new Company, not forgetting the sad experience of their predecessors, significantly adjusted the project of the canal, choosing the option with locks, made a bet not on private capital, but on state funding, and fine-tuned the construction management procedure. Modern discoveries in the field of medicine also came to their aid: by that time it was established that mosquitoes and mosquitoes were the destroyers of the French - carriers of yellow fever and malaria, so unprecedented efforts were made on the territory to destroy insidious insects. Serious sanitary and hygienic measures were taken throughout the entire construction of the canal. However, even in this case, human casualties were not without - during the second stage of the construction of the Panama Canal, 5,600 people died, and 70 thousand workers took part in it. The construction was laborious and took ten years. According to official reports, the construction of the century cost the Americans $ 380 million.
Whether Ferdinan de Lesseps was really guilty of fraud, or whether this elderly man simply turned out to be a victim of self-deception and became a pawn in someone else's unclean game, now it is probably impossible to establish. The methods used in the construction of the canal can be safely called fraudulent. The excessively underestimated cost of the project and the timing of its execution initially misled investors. This was facilitated by an active advertising campaign, which praised the optimistic forecasts, but which constantly hushed up the difficulties.
Despite this, public opinion and the press did not approve of the severity of the sentence ...
By 1888, almost 2 times more funds than expected were spent on the construction of the canal, and only a third of the work was completed. The company went bankrupt, leading to the bankruptcy of thousands of minority shareholders.
Further investigation revealed facts of mass corruption, bribery by the company of officials and newspaper editors. This adventure was named Panama, and the word "Panama" became synonymous with scam, fraud.
In 1894 in France was organized new Panama Canal company, but work was not resumed. The "new company" was in behind-the-scenes negotiations with the United States government, which hoped to use the channel to further penetrate the economy of Central and South America. Negotiations were crowned with success, and the deal was concluded on February 13, 1903. The Company ceded to the United States government for $ 40 million its rights to build the canal and all equipment and property on site.
The conditions under which the company operated in Colombian territory did not satisfy the United States, and they developed a new agreement under which the entire 10-mile wide strip of land along which the canal passed was removed from the sovereignty of the Republic of Colombia. The cities of Colon and Panama were declared free ports. The protection of the channel was entrusted to the government of the Republic of Colombia. The United States government pledged to pay the government of the Republic of Colombia a paltry $ 10 million in a lump sum and then pay a small sum of $ 250,000 annually.
This treaty was signed by both governments on March 18, 1903, a month after the acquisition of the rights to the canal, and submitted to their senates for ratification.
The Colombian Senate, under pressure from the popular masses, outraged by the enslaving conditions, rejected the treaty, demanding the assurance of its sovereignty over the canal zone and wanting to receive large compensation for the concession presented. The refusal of the Colombian Senate to ratify the treaty caused a storm of indignation among the ruling circles of the United States. The President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt proposed not to stand on ceremony with the random owners of the territory the United States needs and deal with them at its discretion.
Using bribery and pressure, American entrepreneurs on Wall Street, through their agents, staged the Panama Revolution on November 4, 1903.
The newly formed Republic of Panama, which includes 84 thousand square kilometers, including the zone of passage of the future canal, declared itself independent from Colombia, and was headed by pro-American hard-core businessmen, bought with American dollars.
The President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt immediately ordered the commanders of American warships stationed in Colon and the Pacific port of Mexico - Acapulco, not to allow Colombian troops to land on the shores of Panama, heading there to suppress the "revolution". The American directorate of the Panama Railroad also refused to transport Colombian soldiers for this purpose.
Just a week after the "revolution", the United States hastened to formally recognize independence and autonomy of the Republic of Panama, and on November 18, 1903, they signed a new agreement with the government of this republic on the construction of the canal on even more favorable terms for the United States than the agreement previously rejected by the Colombian Senate. On February 26, 1904, the territory adjacent to the canal, 1422 square kilometers with a population of 14.47 thousand people, was annexed to the United States and named the "Panama Canal Zone".
The Republic of Colombia did not risk a war with the United States and was forced to admit defeat. Construction of the canal was resumed and continued by the United States.
Culebra notch
The Culebra Cut in terms of the totality of labor, people and money used was a kind of "special miracle" of the Panama Canal. The essence of this work was to overcome the multi-kilometer section between Gamboa on the Chagres River through the Continental Division mountain range south to Pedro Miguel. The lowest point on the pass between Gold Hill in the east and Contractors Hill in the west was about 100 meters above sea level.
Technically, it all boiled down to drilling holes in which explosives were placed, the detonation of which lifted a mass of stones and petrified clay into the air. Steam excavators then removed the resulting crushed soil, placing it on railcars for transport to the dumping sites. In general, the working equipment, in addition to the railway itself, included steam excavators, unloaders, spoilers and track drives. Of all these machines, only steam excavators were known to the French, and they were much less powerful. The Lidgerwood unloader, manufactured by the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company of New York City, was an indispensable tool for the job. Wooden single-sided platforms with an average carrying capacity of 14.5 cubic meters transported most of the excavated soil, of which long trains were made (there were no gaps between the platforms, they were closed with special gutters), which were hooked up to powerful locomotives built in America.
The unloading system was interesting. The unloader's three-ton plow was mounted on the last platform, and a long cable ran from it to a winch on the frontmost platform. Having received power from the locomotive, the winch began to quickly attract the plow to itself, thereby unloading the train of 20 platforms in one ten-minute movement. One of these machines once set an 8-hour record, unloading 18 trains during this time, that is, over five and a half kilometers of platforms and 5780 cubic meters of soil. Engineers calculated that twenty of these unloaders, which required 120 workers to service, replaced the manual labor of 5,666 people.
The spreader was another American invention. It was a trolley running on compressed air, on both sides it had a kind of wings that could be lowered or raised. Once lowered, they covered several meters along the sides of the track. Moving forward, the spreader pushed and leveled the material left by the spreader. Like him, the spreader performed the work of five to six thousand ordinary workers at a time.
Another machine, the tracker, was invented by the American William G. Bierd, general manager of the Panama Railways from September 1905 to October 1907. The massive crane-like machine lifted an entire section of the road - rails and sleepers - and moved it in the other direction, a maximum of more than two meters at a time. Its benefit was especially great from the fact that the paths had to be constantly shifted in accordance with the course of work. Once, having demanded a dozen people for its management, such a machine moved over a kilometer of track per day, which otherwise would have required the labor of more than six hundred workers.
A significant number of large four-sided tipper cars (ie dump trucks) from Western and Oliver were also used. Since their unloading turned out to be very difficult, due to the fact that heavy clay adhered to the steel walls, they were used almost exclusively for transporting stones from Vyemka to Gatun Dam. Their four-sided design made it impossible to use the unloader. Many millions of cubic meters of excavated soil had to be diverted from the extraction site. Part of this soil was used to connect four small islands in the Bay of Panama (Naos, Perico, Culebra and Flamenco) to build a breakwater. On top of this breakwater, there is a paved road that, for several kilometers, essentially passes through the Pacific Ocean. The area between the mainland and the island of Naos was especially difficult in terms of bulk work, as the bottom there was soft, and whole tons of stones disappeared into it without a trace. The railway and the piles, with the help of which these works were carried out, were once washed away by the sea, which required their re-construction. As a result, in order to reach the island of Naos with these works, the builders needed to fill ten times more of the planned volume.
The resulting soil was also used to backfill two square kilometers of the Pacific Ocean in order to create a site for the construction of the city of Balboa and the military fort of Amador. Millions of cubic meters have also gone into the construction of large embankments in the jungle. The largest of them, Tabernilla, contained over ten million cubic meters. Gatunskaya dam and Miraflores were other significant embankments.
The Gatunskaya dam, on the Atlantic side, was during its construction the largest dam on Earth, and the resulting Gatunskoye Lake was the largest artificial reservoir on the planet. Nowadays, Lake Gatunskoye is not even included in the thirty such lakes. Two dams of similar importance were built on the Pacific side - the Miraflores Spillway and, already in the thirties, the Madden Dam up the Chagres River. Upon completion of the Gatun Dam, the Chagres River valley between Gamboa and Gatun turned into Gatun Lake. The end of the Culebra cut widened the lake across the Continental Section to the Pedro Miguel Locks.
Landslides along the banks of the Kulebrskaya excavation were a source of constant problems for engineers. The first such landslide under the Americans occurred near Cucarachi on October 4, 1907, when hundreds of cubic meters fell into Vyemka after several days of heavy rain. For ten days, the landslide moved at a speed of more than four meters per day. To this day, Cucaracha remains a landslide hazardous area.
A "normal" landslide, similar to what occurs in the Cucarachi area, occurs due to the fact that the porous material lying on a solid rocky base is liquefied by water and at some stage loses its adhesion to the base and collapses in whole layers, often many meters thick ...
There is also another type of landslide called "structural" or "deformation". In this case, it already depends on the geological structure of the rock massifs. In the case of the Kulebraskoy excavation, the extraction of material led to the fact that the high banks lost stability and collapsed under their own weight, often in the deepest sections, thereby reducing the depth of the channel. The greatest threat of such landslides appears during dry seasons, thus not depending on rainfall.
The annual labor record for the construction of the Culebra excavation was achieved in 1908, then, in addition to tens of millions of regular cubic meters of soil, it was also necessary to move the Panama Railway to a higher level, due to the forthcoming appearance of Lake Gatun. This required to lay about 64 kilometers and was completed on May 25, 1912, the money spent about nine million dollars.
By 1913, the construction of three giant locks was completed, which became a real wonder of the world. The walls of each airlock were the height of a six-story building. For each series of locks: Gatun on the Atlantic coast and Pedro Miguel and Miraflores on the Pacific coast, more than 1.5 million cubic meters were used. meters of concrete, which were cast into steel structures from a huge 6-ton bucket.
On August 15, 1914, the Cristobal was the first to navigate the Channel from the Atlantic to the Pacific. On board was the "good genius" of construction Philippe Buno-Variglia. It took the ship 9 hours to pass. Thanks to the artificial artery, the ship sailing from Ecuador to Europe “saved” about 8 thousand kilometers.
The first ship sailed along the canal line on August 15, 1914. The official opening of the channel took place only on June 12, 1920.
From the very moment of the construction of the canal, its actual and legal owners were the USA. Interestingly, the canal and the area around it have always been used by the United States not so much for the purpose of making a profit from cargo transportation, since the main principle was not the profitability of the canal, but covering the costs of maintaining and maintaining it in good condition, but with the aim of gaining the ability to control the region.
Numerous military bases used to train soldiers were located in the canal zone. In the country itself, at different times, there were from 10 to 65 thousand American troops, who were stationed there not so much to service the canal as to exercise control over Panama and other countries of the region. Moreover, there was a special "School of the Americas", which taught soldiers the strategy and tactics of fighting the rebels on the continent. The area around the Panama Canal has always been important to the United States.
The issue of the channel's ownership was raised many times. Many, first of all, representatives of the United States, were against the transfer of the canal to Panama, because they believed that such actions could only lead to the decline of the cargo transportation system, since the Panamanians simply would not be able to manage the canal.
The construction of the canal was started by French companies, but they were unable to complete the project due to bankruptcy. The started construction was bought by the United States, which concluded in 1903 an agreement on the transfer of the canal for perpetual use. In addition to receiving the canal and the land around it in full control, under this treaty, the United States was given the right to deploy its troops at any time in any area of Panama and, in general, was allowed to feel at home. The contract price was $ 10 million, plus an annual rent of $ 250,000.
An interesting fact in the history of Panama. As you know, Panama was a colony of Spain for a long time, and since 1821 it became part of federal Colombia. The struggle for independence here continued throughout the history of Panama, where uprisings and movements for freedom from Colombia broke out from time to time. But, oddly enough, it was the United States that helped Panama gain independence. Of course, the intentions of the United States were far from noble, their main goal was still the Panama Canal, and here's why. To sign an agreement on the transfer of rights to the channel, the consent of at least two parties was required.
At the same time in Panama, by the beginning of the 20th century, separatist sentiments had exacerbated, which went right into the hands of the United States. But a certain threat was carried with them by the troops of Colombia, whose authorities did not want to just give up Panama. That is why, in order to ensure security, and indeed the very fact of the conclusion of the treaty, the United States paid Colombia 25 million dollars for the independence of Panama.
Colombia agreed to "let go" of Panama in 1903, although the fact that Panama became free can only be said conditionally, since it immediately fell under the de facto control of the United States.
The further history of the canal, Panama and everything that soared around it I will tell you in the next post about the modern Panama Canal.
In the meantime, let's take a look at the footage of the canal construction:
Remember what exist and how it was built
This is a copy of the article located atThe idea of connecting the two oceans with an artificially dug canal arose back in the 16th century. from the Spanish conquistadors. However, the Spanish king Philip II spoke out against this idea. And it took 300 years before they started talking about the channel again. Ferdinand de Lesseps, inspired by the successful construction of the Suez Canal, decided in this way to connect the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In 1881 he began work, but this time he was destined to fail. The ambitious project had to be closed just seven years after its start. The consortium created for the construction suffered a financial collapse.
In 1902, the people who bought what was left of the consortium's farm resold it to the United States for $ 40 million. At the time, Panama was still under the jurisdiction of Colombia. This did not allow the Americans to just show up and start digging their channel. President Theodore Roosevelt supported the Panamanian independence fighters and led them to victory. By 1903 Panama had become an independent sovereign state and work could be resumed. The first ship passed through the new Panama Canal on August 15, 1914. According to the agreement between Panama and the United States, the Panama Canal was to “forever” remain the property of the States.
With a length of about 80 km, the Panama Canal passes through the city of Colon on the Atlantic coast and the artificial lake Gatun on the Pacific coast. Thanks to the canal, the sea route from San Francisco to New York, instead of 26,000 km, was only 10,000 km. The water level in the Atlantic is only 24 cm lower than in the Pacific Ocean. However, due to the uneven mountainous landscape, ships have to pass 3 locks on their way in order to rise 26 m to the level of Lake Gatun. The channel is wide enough for the ships to move towards each other with little or no delay. The sizes of the locks limit the parameters of ships that can pass through the canal, and seafarers know these numbers as Panamax. Ships must be no more than 294 m in length and 32 m in breadth to suit the Panamax vessel type. They should also have a draft of no more than 12 m.
Since the Panama Canal opened in 1914, more than a million ships have been recorded passing through it - 14,000 of them in 2005 alone. The owners of the Panama Canal are paid for all ships passing through it. When the United States ceded control of the canal to the Panamanian government in 2000, the responsibility for maintaining it fell on the shoulders of the Panamanian government. Fees, depending on the size of the vessel and the weight of its cargo, average up to $ 2 billion per year. However, it is no longer a secret for anyone that the channel's capacity does not meet the demands of modern shipping. Not only has the number of ships sailing from the States to Asia and vice versa increased: their size has also increased. The dimensions of the so-called post-Panama class vessels do not allow them to pass through the canal. Therefore, it is planned to modernize the channel by 2014.
Dates
- 1881: A French consortium begins construction of the canal.
- 1902: Remaining French assets are bought by the United States for $ 40 million.
- 1903: Panama gains independence and construction work resumes.
- 15 August 1914: Navigation is opened on the canal.
- 1920-1999: The channel is owned by the United States.
- January 1, 2000: US cedes ownership to Panama. FACTS
- Length: The canal is 80 km long, with stirrups.
- Traffic density: Since 1914 recorded about a million ships passing through the canal. Average annual tolls are $ 2 billion. Up to 45 ships pass through the canal every day.
